{"id":7528,"date":"2023-05-27T07:33:26","date_gmt":"2023-05-27T07:33:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528"},"modified":"2023-09-15T10:40:05","modified_gmt":"2023-09-15T10:40:05","slug":"new-photography-and-the-holocaust-the-nuremberg-trials","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528","title":{"rendered":"Photography and the Holocaust: The Nuremberg Trials"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 10pt;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=6312\">Theme Table of Contents<\/a><\/span><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\"><span style=\"font-size: 10pt;\">VJIC Table of Contents<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong><em>Photography and the Holocaust: Then &amp; Now<br \/>\n<\/em><\/strong><strong>Essay # 8<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>AFTERMATH: The Nuremberg Trials<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><strong>\u00a0<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/827600236?h=6685a026a2\" width=\"320\" height=\"180\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">\u00a9 Robert Hirsch 2023<br \/>\nwww.lightresearch.net<br \/>\n<em>VASA Journal on Images and Culture<\/em> (<em>VJIC<\/em>),<br \/>\nTheme Editor and Writer<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">\u201cThe history of mankind is the history of crimes.<br \/>\nRecognize that there is evil in the world and be<br \/>\nprepared to take action.\u201dSimon Wiesenthal&#8221;<a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>This essay examines the role that photo-based imagery played in the immediate aftermath of Liberation by means of The Nuremberg Trials. Owing to the enormous scope of people affected by the German atrocities and genocide, select examples embody the infinite.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Additional information about specific images can be found at the end of this essay (Image Notes). Images have been minimally adjusted to facilitate online viewing, but have not been overtly edited from their source.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7444\" style=\"width: 635px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7444\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7444\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"625\" height=\"571\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color.jpg 625w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color-300x274.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color-150x137.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 625px) 100vw, 625px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7444\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.00 World War II, 1945 Timeline<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_7429\" style=\"width: 635px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7429\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7429\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"625\" height=\"414\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo-.jpg 625w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo--300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo--150x99.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 625px) 100vw, 625px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7429\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.01 Henri Cartier-Bresson. Gestapo Informer Recognized by a Woman She Had Denounced, Deportation Camp, Dessau, Germany, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Magnum Photo.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Holocaust did not end in 1945 with the liberation of Europe. After fighting their way into Nazi-occupied territory, Allied and Soviet forces discovered and liberated concentration camps, freeing more than two million Europeans, including 250,000 Jewish Holocaust survivors.<a href=\"#_edn2\" name=\"_ednref\">[ii]<\/a> However, it was apparent that the loose alliance of the Allies and the Soviets would collapse as their economic and political systems were incompatible and in competition. The Allies were immediately concerned with how to govern, rehabilitate, and to bring some form of justice to the defeated Axis powers in Europe and Japan as well as forming a postwar alliance against Communism. Plus, both sides were recruiting Nazi scientists to work for them.Therefore, Jewish concerns took a back seat even though life for many European Jews was a crime scene within a massive graveyard, often with no place to call a protected home as their entire world had been completely destroyed.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Postwar Nuremberg Trials<\/strong><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7430\" style=\"width: 226px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7430\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7430\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--216x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"216\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--108x150.jpg 108w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation-.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 216px) 100vw, 216px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7430\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.02 Unknown photographer. Dachau Liberation, Entomologisches Institut der Waffen SS Camp, Germany, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Yad Vashem Archives Jerusalem, Israel.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The Allies and Soviets were confronted with what to do with the 8.5 million members of National Socialist German Workers\u2019 Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei) and their millions of collaborators who participated in robbing, torturing, and murdering two out of every three European Jews, wiping out entire centuries-old communities.<a href=\"#_edn3\" name=\"_ednref\">[iii]<\/a> The Nazis killed so many Jews that the global Jewish population is still demographically lower today than it was in 1939.<\/p>\n<p>To address the issue of justice, international, domestic, and military courts conducted trials of tens of thousands of accused war criminals. The most well-known of the war crimes trials is that of 22 leading German officials before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg Germany. This trial began on November 20, 1945. The IMT delivered its verdict on October 1, 1946, convicting 19 of the defendants and acquitting three. Of those convicted, 12 were sentenced to death, including Reichsmarschall Hermann G\u00f6ring, Hans Frank, General Alfred Jodl, Alfred Rosenberg, Julius Streicher, and Joachim von Ribbentrop. The IMT sentenced three defendants to life imprisonment and four to prison terms ranging from ten to 20 years.<a href=\"#_edn4\" name=\"_ednref\">[iv]<\/a> In addition to the Nuremberg IMT, the Allied powers established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo in 1946, which tried leading Japanese officials. Holland set up a special court where more than 65,000 accused collaborators stood trial that stripped some of certain civil rights, sent some to prison, and condemned others to death.<a href=\"#_edn5\" name=\"_ednref\">[v]<\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7431\" style=\"width: 586px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7431\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7431\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"576\" height=\"432\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates-.jpg 576w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates--300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates--150x113.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 576px) 100vw, 576px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7431\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.03 Unknown photographer. Germans burying the corpses of inmates under the supervision of American soldiers, Schwarzheide, Germany, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Chief Nuremburg prosecutor, Justice Robert Jackson has been tragically prophetic when he wrote that the Nuremberg defendants were \u201cliving symbols of racial hatred, terrorism, and violence, and of the arrogance and cruelty of power.\u201d These continue to be the consistent tribulations that we confront today. As Russian dictator Vladimir Putin\u2019s invasion of the Ukraine makes abundantly clear, the world has not changed as much as those who conducted the Nuremberg trials would have hoped for.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7432\" style=\"width: 593px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7432\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7432\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"583\" height=\"456\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison-.jpg 583w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison--300x235.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison--150x117.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 583px) 100vw, 583px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7432\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.04 Unknown photographer. The main cell block in the Nuremberg prison, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany, November 24, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland.<\/p><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_7433\" style=\"width: 459px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7433\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7433\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"449\" height=\"625\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer-.jpg 449w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer--216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer--108x150.jpg 108w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 449px) 100vw, 449px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7433\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.05 Sergeant Silverside and Lieutenant A. Turner, No 5 Army Film &amp; Photographic Unit. Irma Grese and former SS Hauptsturmf\u00fchrer Josef Kramer in prison, in Celle Germany, August 8, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Imperial War Museums, UK.<\/p><\/div>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_7434\" style=\"width: 635px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7434\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7434\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"625\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg-.jpg 625w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg--300x235.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg--150x117.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 625px) 100vw, 625px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7434\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.06 Charles Alexander. The defendants dock at the International Military Tribunal trial of war criminals, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany., January 1, 1946 &#8211; October 1, 1946. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC.<\/p><\/div><div id=\"attachment_7435\" style=\"width: 594px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7435\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7435\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"584\" height=\"475\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide-.jpg 584w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide--300x244.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide--150x122.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 584px) 100vw, 584px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7435\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.07 Edward F. McLaughlin. The body of Hermann Goering after he committed suicide in prison following the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany, October 16, 1946. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC.<\/p><\/div><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7436\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7436\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7436\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"365\" height=\"625\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows-.jpg 365w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows--175x300.jpg 175w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows--88x150.jpg 88w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 365px) 100vw, 365px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7436\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.08 Stanis\u0142aw D\u0105browiecki. Rudolf Hoess on the gallows, immediately before his execution, April 16, 1947. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Although efforts to bring to justice to the perpetrators of Nazi-era crimes continued into the twenty-first century, the overwhelming majority of perpetrators were never tried or punished. Often, those who were convicted received light sentences that were later reduced. The post-war German government and bureaucracy was filled with former Nazis.<a href=\"#_edn6\" name=\"_ednref\">[vi]<\/a> Nevertheless, the postwar trials did set important legal precedents. Today, international and domestic tribunals seek to uphold the principle that those who commit wartime atrocities should be brought to justice.<a href=\"#_edn7\" name=\"_ednref\">[vii]<\/a> Nevertheless, what was still absent was the ability of Jews to present and represent themselves on the world stage as the images utilized in the Nuremberg Trials were made by those outside of the tribe.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7437\" style=\"width: 537px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7437\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7437\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"527\" height=\"625\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments-.jpg 527w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments--253x300.jpg 253w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments--126x150.jpg 126w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 527px) 100vw, 527px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7437\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.09 Unknown photographer. Children at a German Nazi concentration camp subjected to pseudo-medical experiments. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.<\/p><\/div>\n<p><strong>Evidence of a Disaster<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The prosecutors set out to prove Nazi Germany\u2019s crimes through the Germans\u2019 own words and testimony. For example, Eugen St\u00e4hle, a doctor and politician who implemented the<\/p>\n<p><div id=\"attachment_7438\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7438\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7438\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.10_-Alexander_Stacks-of-German-documents--300x229.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"229\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.10_-Alexander_Stacks-of-German-documents--300x229.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.10_-Alexander_Stacks-of-German-documents--150x115.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.10_-Alexander_Stacks-of-German-documents-.jpg 607w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7438\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.10 Charles Alexander. American army staffers organize stacks of German documents that were collected by war crimes investigators as evidence for the International Military Tribunal trial of war criminals at Nuremberg, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany, November 20, 1945 \u2013 October 1, 1946. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD.<\/p><\/div>Nazi murders of over 200,000 people with physical, mental and psychological disabilities stated: \u201cThe fifth commandment: Thou shalt not kill, is no commandment of God but a Jewish invention.\u201d<a href=\"#_edn8\" name=\"_ednref\">[viii]<\/a> The foundation of their case was based on thousands of such German documents the Allies seized. Most of the witnesses called to testify had been members of the Nazi Party, SS, or German state or military.<\/p>\n<p>The prosecution also presented films and photographs as evidence.<a href=\"#_edn9\" name=\"_ednref\">[ix]<\/a> One film produced by the United States showed the liberation of the concentration camps. Another film produced by the Soviets presented evidence of Nazi atrocities and the liberation of Majdanek and Auschwitz concentration camps. The Holocaust was not the main focus of the trial, but considerable evidence was presented about the \u201cFinal Solution,\u201d including the mass murder operations at Auschwitz and the destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto. As television was not widely available at this time, it\u2019s likely that most of the defendants had never been directly confronted with immediate visual evidence of their dreadful acts. This made the photographs and films collected by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) team instrumental in establishing a shared perception of the Holocaust.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7439\" style=\"width: 635px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7439\" class=\"size-full wp-image-7439\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards-.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"625\" height=\"618\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards-.jpg 625w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards--300x297.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards--150x148.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 625px) 100vw, 625px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7439\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.11 Sergeant H. Oakes, No 5 Army Film &amp; Photographic Unit. SS women camp guards are paraded for work in clearing the dead, April 4, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Imperial War Museums, UK.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>The original caption sheet read: \u201cS.S. women are also made to work. These women are the equivalent of the men for brutality.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity of these photo-based images was based on their direct indexical relationship to the time of their making; thus they are themselves a history of a disaster. This was re-enforced because these images were captured as on film, which in pre-digital times were considered by the general public to be permanent, physical records of outer reality. Thus, like an archaeological find, these images delivered realistic, primary evidence of the past in the present that people would accept as accurate. Although the profusion of Holocaust photographs can be numbing, these images offer a powerful defensive time machine against amnesia. In classic documentary approach, they can act as potent instruments of imaginative reconstruction, even when they offer an illusion of a presence when the reality is that of a vast absence.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike Holocaust deniers, the Nazi defendants did not deny the accuracy of the documentary evidence they themselves produced, demonstrating how the making of photographs mirror their makers. Although they maintained no personal responsibility for the crimes, under the IMT\u2019s charter, the defendants could not assert innocence on the grounds that they were following orders. People forget words, but remember pictures, as they can make an indelible impression in a viewer\u2019s mind. Thus, the top Nazis were hoisted by their own petards.<a href=\"#_edn10\" name=\"_ednref\">[x]<\/a> The degrading way they pictured Jews was yet another form of war, that of lives not worth living. With bitter irony, these obscene images redeemed themselves as eyewitnesses to their depravities.<\/p>\n<p>This demonstrates how photographs are in flux, their purpose and meanings can be reinvented and used for contrasting purposes depending on what the maker wants to represent, their context, and how the audiences decide to interpret them. Collectively, the meaning of the Shoah photographs can be pursued either in a straight line, like a canal, or they can be looked at in a more expressionistic fashion, like a meandering brook, letting one\u2019s imagination float down-stream as in CEPA Gallery\u2019s (Buffalo, New York) upcoming photo-based project that has grown out of these essays (see Afterword). The latter posits that if the goal of these photographs is to make the experience of life more \u2014 more thoughtful, more intimate, more immediate, more painful, more surprising, and even more beautiful \u2014 then this is the route. This is one way that the generations of makers haunted by the Holocaust can continue the telling in a manner that rehumanizes and reinvigorates this history.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7440\" style=\"width: 222px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7440\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7440\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.12_Billy-the-goat--212x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"212\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.12_Billy-the-goat--212x300.jpg 212w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.12_Billy-the-goat--106x150.jpg 106w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.12_Billy-the-goat-.jpg 442w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 212px) 100vw, 212px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7440\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.12 Unknown photographer. Model of the torture device nicknamed \u201cBilly the goat\u201d exhibited in the camp (probably Bergen-Belsen, Germany). Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Yad Vashem Archives, Jerusalem, Israel.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>What none of the photographic or written evidence can answer is how, in the blink of an eye, humans can turn from church going, family orientated neighbors to mass-murderers and back again. Indirectly, these photographs raise a fundamental question about human nature: Is there free will or are we prisoners of our circumstances, environment and\/or heredity? Can we act without the constraint of necessity or fate at one\u2019s own discretion or are all our choices caused by forces and influences over which we have no meaningful control?<\/p>\n<p>A memorable example can be read in Fyodor Dostoevsky\u2019s <em>The Brothers Karamazov<\/em> (1879-1880). The character Ivan (aka Vanya), whose dictum \u201cif there is no God, everything is lawful,\u201d dreams that the Grand Inquisitor arrests the risen Christ. The Grand Inquisitor does this to sustain happiness and the security that comes from not having to choose good over evil, arguing that the power of choice does not benefit the church\u2019s authority, and that moral freedom is too demanding a burden for most people to manage. We would be correct in perceiving Lucifer\u2019s self-satisfaction in the inquisitors unscrupulous positions, which re-enforces his overarching power to command others without being questioned and grants his underlings the alibi that they were just following orders from an almighty source. For all the shouting we now hear about liberty, those who abuse, threaten, and lie about people who are different from them and decree which books are wicked and must be banned and\/or burned, seem terrified of allowing their fellow human beings the right to choose virtue on their own while providing cover for those who carry out dastardly bidding.<\/p>\n<p>This aspect of personal choice and responsibility also reveals how a shared history does not equate with shared memories and assessments of data, which are flexible, fragmented, and shapeshifting based on personal history. Regardless of motive, no survivors were called as witnesses, once again denying Jews a voice in the proceedings that enormously affected them. This must have been frustrating, as Jews did not want only to have history imposed upon them but wanted to possess it, including its ethical and political weight and responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p>The German people\u2019s actions, and lack of actions, following their defeat expressed more self-pity than any moral sense of wrongdoing. Reporting on the Nuremberg Trials for the <em>Jerusalem Post<\/em> (then the <em>Palestine Post<\/em>), social historian George Lichtheim concluded that the Nazi movement did not represent just mob mentality. Rather, it had dominated German universities before it triumphed over German society. Thus, it\u2019s irrationality and reactionary romanticism and worship of power was promoted by leading German intellectuals like philosopher Martin Heidegger who joined the Nazi party in 1933. Lichtheim also asserted that it was a corresponding myth that most Germans felt regret for their crimes, stating. \u201cIn prosaic fact, most of them are sorry, only for themselves.\u201d<a href=\"#_edn11\" name=\"_ednref\">[xi]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>In the Western zones of post-war Germany, less than 5 percent of the cases heard resulted in a verdict of highly incriminated, incriminated, or less incriminated. More than 95 percent of those investigated were either deemed nominal party members, exonerated, or simply amnestied outright.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7441\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7441\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7441\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.13_Germans-view-camp-footage--300x236.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"236\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.13_Germans-view-camp-footage--300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.13_Germans-view-camp-footage--150x118.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.13_Germans-view-camp-footage-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7441\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.13 Captain Carter. German prisoners of war held in an American camp watch a film about German concentration camps, Buchenwald, April 16, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Postwar Germans \u201cwallowed\u201d in their own suffering. They perceived themselves as having been \u201cabused\u201d and \u201cduped\u201d by Hitler and devoured by war. In an \u201cextraordinary feat of repression\u201d the Holocaust had to be literally \u201cunspeakable\u201d and \u201cunsayable\u201d for Germans unable to face up to their own guilt. However \u201cinfuriating\u201d this \u201cintolerable insolence\u201d may have been, Harald J\u00e4hner, former editor of <em>The Berlin Times<\/em>, concluded that it was a \u201cnecessary prerequisite\u201d for the democratization of Germany. It opened the way not for the continuation of National Socialism, but rather for the successful integration of ex-Nazis and a new start. German democratization had \u201cnothing to do with historical justice.\u201d<a href=\"#_edn12\" name=\"_ednref\">[xii]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>The footage that was shown in figure 8.13 came from a U.S. newsreel that was seen by millions and millions of people in an effort to make a case that jarring images can have a deep emotional saturation that is capable of shattering the pseudoscientific <em>Aryan<\/em> master race delusions (Herrenrasse). This forced process was part of the Allied policy of postwar denazification that brought Germans face-to-face with the worst deeds of the Third Reich \u2014 that seeing can convey the meaning or essence of a subject more effectively than a language based description. Images became a vital component in the Allied attempt to purge Germany of the remnants of Nazi rule and rebuild its civil society, infrastructure, and economy. The visual program also included compulsory visits to nearby concentration camps along with posters showing dead bodies of concentration camp prisoners displayed in public places. Think of it as a different way of defining persistence of vision<a href=\"#_edn13\" name=\"_ednref\">[xiii]<\/a> \u2013 that such images, not one would not want to display in their living room, could remain in the minds of viewers, encouraging them to shake off the status quo and assist Germany into becoming democracy. Bear in mind, these images were more disturbing in their day, before we were visually assaulted with ghoulish cruelties on the nightly news.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Reparations<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Beginning in the 1960s, Germany began to \u201ccome to grips with the past\u201d (for which the Germans invented the term Vergangenheitsbew\u00e4ltigung). However differently J\u00e4hner and other historians portray various factors in Germany\u2019s democratization, they are in agreement that the deferral, often permanently, of a historical and judicial reckoning with the Nazi past was an important element in this process.<\/p>\n<p>It should be noted that between 1945 and 2018, the German government paid approximately $86.8 billion in restitution and compensation to Holocaust victims and their heirs.<a href=\"#_edn14\" name=\"_ednref\">[xiv]<\/a> Additionally, Germany will pay $1.2 billion, including emergency aid for Holocaust survivors in Ukraine remembrance education.<a href=\"#_edn15\" name=\"_ednref\">[xv]<\/a> Finally, Germany agreed, for the first time, to specifically fund Holocaust education \u2014 with 10 million euros allotted for 2022, 25 million euros for 2023, 30 million euros for 2024 and 35 million euros for 2025.<a href=\"#_edn16\" name=\"_ednref\">[xvi]<\/a> Even so, plundered Jewish assets that targeted the cultural identity of Jews are still in the possession of official and private hands and remain in the process of being litigated\u2014plus all the world\u2019s wealth can never replace what was lose.<a href=\"#_edn17\" name=\"_ednref\">[xvii]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Once again, we can observe that often the only thing capable of diminishing humanity\u2019s endless ability to hunker down in a state of denial is indisputable visual evidence. When these ferocious, acts were orchestrated on a massive institutional scale, the Allies utilized harrowing images of the German\u2019s barbaric acts in an attempt to shatter their collective delusions. Written words were entirely inadequate to describe the scope of the Nazi reign of terror and that the only compelling way to do that was through photo-based images. When all else fails, tell it to the eye. In such instances, the photographic record could act as society\u2019s consciousness, reminding viewers that equal rights and justice are necessary for all in order to have an open and healthy society.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7442\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7442\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7442\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--300x213.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"213\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--300x213.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--150x107.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till-.jpeg 766w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7442\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.14 David Jackson. The mutilated body of Emmett Till and his distraught mother, 1955. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Jet magazine.<\/p><\/div>\n<p>At the time when such images were rarely published, this was considered an effective method to reach large segments of the public (during the war, the U.S. had a policy of not publishing photographs of dead American soldiers). A classic example of a photograph affecting the general public\u2019s call for social justice was the publishing of the mutilated body of Emmett Till, a Black 14-year-old from Chicago who was kidnapped while visiting relatives in Mississippi. He was horribly tortured, and viciously murdered by racist white men for allegedly flirting with a white woman. Emmett\u2019s mother decided to present this nauseating situation by conducting a public funeral and having photographs of his open casket published in <em>Jet<\/em>, a leading Black magazine. The unpardonable violence these photographs conveyed, combined with the failure of the authorities to bring the perpetrators to justice, are widely acknowledged as a key turning point the U.S. civil rights movement of the 1950s.<\/p>\n<p>In today\u2019s digital world, with its abundance of extremely gratuitous violent images, deep fakes, AI produced pictures, often designed to sow doubt through disinformation, plus endless choices for people to get information, the public\u2019s belief in trustworthy images has evaporated. The result has diminished the ability of any pictorial works to have a broad social influence.<\/p>\n<p>Regrettably, many humans concoct facts that support their beliefs regardless of legitimate documentation. That said, the analog, mechanical nature of the Holocaust photographs, often possessing an anonymous, incidental, snapshot quality, provide an efficient way to express complex ideas. In prosaic terms, they can act as \u201clint screens\u201d that collect the images in the brain that keep circulating, giving them added intellectual and psychological depth.<\/p>\n<p>Collectively, Shoah images now can serve an expanded societal role by reminding us that what happened in Germany (genocide)<a href=\"#_edn18\" name=\"_ednref\">[xviii]<\/a> can, does, and has happened elsewhere and in other times. We see examples of contemporary authoritarian leaders and states targeting groups and individuals that resist their tyrannical ideology. What this indicates is that sadist human beings continue to love making war and gleefully enjoy oppressing others, even down to looting their family snapshots while bystanders passively looked on. This is why, if one teaches historical antisemitism, it is imperative to teach contemporary antisemitism and the tenets of Jewish culture and values, which then re-humanizes those who were dehumanized.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\"><em>After liberation, my grandmother and I returned home<br \/>\nto find that everything was gone. Our family photos, prayer<br \/>\nbooks, even the gilded book I won in school, had been looted.<br \/>\nI have been able to recover a few photos of my family from<br \/>\nbefore the Holocaust, but they are all I have. And I\u2019mfortunate.<br \/>\nMany survivors only have memories of their loved ones<\/em>.<a href=\"#_edn19\" name=\"_ednref\">[xix]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>What the Shoah photographs make abundantly clear is that those who are different from the majority need a safe harbor. In this case, the European Jews had nowhere to go. For these outsiders the immediate lesson of the Holocaust was the absolute need for a country of their own, which would make something out of their trauma, honor the dead, and give future generations agency to act upon the world because hate never takes a holiday.<\/p>\n<p><center><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/827600349?h=b058a0d9de\" width=\"320\" height=\"180\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/center>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>To be continued: Essay 9 \u2013 \u201cDisplaced Persons Camps and the Pre-Israel State\u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Tribute<\/strong><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7443\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7443\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-7443\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--300x266.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"266\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--300x266.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--150x133.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7443\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.15 Robin Utrecht. <em>Benjamin B. Ferencz: Last Surviving Nuremberg Prosecutor<\/em>, <em>Dies at 103<\/em>, 2023. Vertical Entertainment, Mr. Ferencz in <em>Prosecuting Evil: The Extraordinary World of Ben Ferencz<\/em>, 2019. Dimensions variable. Digital file.<\/p><\/div>\n<p><strong>Afterword<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong><em>Photography and the Holocaust: Then &amp; Now<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><center><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/827600310?h=8a43e85bf6\" width=\"320\" height=\"180\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><span style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><span style=\"display: inline-block; width: 0px; overflow: hidden; line-height: 0;\" data-mce-type=\"bookmark\" class=\"mce_SELRES_start\">\ufeff<\/span><\/iframe><\/center>From January through May 2024 CEPA Gallery (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.cepagallery.org\">www.cepagallery.org<\/a>) will present a comprehensive exhibition, publication, and community project that investigates the many roles Holocaust (Shoah) photo-based imagery can shape cultural narratives and re-examine history with an emphasis on prejudice and transgenerational trauma. The project will assess photography\u2019s fluctuating role in documenting, interpreting, and understanding the Holocaust, reflecting how past affects the present and the future.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to historic photographs, the large-scale contemporary component will feature an international array of contemporary artists whose practice utilizes historic photo-documents, archival materials, and new imagery to investigate notions of photographic truth, as it relates to personal post-memory effects when creating visual messaging based on historical events. A 100-page catalog will feature essays by the curator and experts in the field as well as maker\u2019s statements and examples of their work.<\/p>\n<p>Intentional outreach and coordinating activities relevant to people of diverse age, social, ethnic, and cultural identity will enable <em>Photography and the Holocaust <\/em>to create a context for community forums to wrestle with difficult conversations that explore the rise of worldwide antisemitism, nationalism, racism, and tribalism, emphasizing that staying silent is to side with the oppressor.<\/p>\n<p>This multi-part project is curated and produced by the author.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Acknowledgements<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Research assistance and project management by Ruby Merritt.<br \/>\nSpecial thanks to Gail Nicholson for copy editing.<br \/>\nFeedback and suggestions are welcome.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>This series of essays is supported by the following organizations and individuals:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>VASA: Roberto Muffoletto, Director<br \/>\nCEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY USA: Claire Legget, Executive Director<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn1\">[1]<\/a> Simon Wiesenthal (1908-2005) was a Jewish Austrian Holocaust survivor, Nazi hunter, and writer who lost some 89 members of his family in the Shoah. He became the unofficial spokesperson for the millions of murdered Jews by bringing 1,100 Nazi war criminals to justice, with little assistance from an essentially indifferent world. See: Simon Wiesenthal Center at www.wiesenthal.com<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn2\">[ii]<\/a> What had been happening in these camps was not news. The U.S. Government learned about the systematic killing of Jews almost as soon as it began by the Germans in the Soviet Union during 1941. Throughout the war the Allies prioritized defeating Nazism, not saving Jews.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn3\">[iii]<\/a> The Germans rehearsed for the Holocaust during the Herero and Nama War (1904-1908), systematically imprisoning and murdering tens of thousands in what is now Namibi. It is considered the first genocide of the twentieth century. See: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herero_and_Namaqua_genocide<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn4\">[iv]<\/a> For details see: <em>The Holocaust Encyclopedia<\/em>, \u201cPostwar Trials,\u201d United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, https:\/\/encyclopedia.ushmm.org\/content\/en\/article\/war-crimes-trials<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn5\">[v]<\/a> Nina Siegal, \u201cDutch to Make Public the Files on Accused Nazi Collaborators,\u201d <em>The New York Times<\/em>, April 25, 2023, www.nytimes.com\/2023\/04\/25\/arts\/dutch-files-accused-nazi-collaborators.html<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn6\">[vi]<\/a> Ralf Beste, et al, \u201cThe Role Ex-Nazis Played in Early West Germany,\u201d <em>Spiegel International<\/em>, March 6, 2012, www.spiegel.de\/international\/germany\/from-dictatorship-to-democracy-the-role-ex-nazis-played-in-early-west-germany-a-810207.html<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn7\">[vii]<\/a> See: \u201cPostwar Trails https:\/\/encyclopedia.ushmm.org\/content\/en\/article\/war-crimes-trials, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn8\">[viii]<\/a> Eugen St\u00e4hle on December 4, 1940 to a W\u00fcrttemberg Evangelical Higher Church Council, quoted by Ernst Klee, <em>Euthanasia in the Nazi state: The destruction of life unworthy of living<\/em>, Frankfurt: Fisher paperback, 2004, 16.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn9\">[ix]<\/a> <em>Holocaust Encyclopedia<\/em>, \u201cWe will show you their own films,\u201d United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC, https:\/\/encyclopedia.ushmm.org\/content\/en\/article\/we-will-show-you-their-own-films-film-at-the-nuremberg-trial<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn10\">[x]<\/a> Petards were small, unreliable medieval bombs made of gunpower that often prematurely exploded, hurting the bomber instead of the intended target.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn11\">[xi]<\/a> Benjamin Balint, \u201cGeorge Lichtheim\u2019s Marxmanship,\u201d <em>Jewish Review of Books<\/em>, Winter 2023, 23.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn12\">[xii]<\/a> See review of Harald J\u00e4hner\u2019s <em>Aftermath<\/em>, Christopher R. Browning, \u201cAdenauer\u2019s Bargain,\u201d <em>The New York Review<\/em><em>, December 22, 2022, www.nybooks.com\/articles\/2022\/12\/22\/adenauers-bargain-aftermath-harald-jahner\/<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn13\">[xiii]<\/a> Persistence of vision is an optical illusion <em>in which the human eye continues to briefly see an image after it has disappeared from view. <\/em>The impression of an object seen by the human eye remains on the retina for 1\/16th of a second. If we see another object before this time, the impressions of the two images merge to give us a sense of continuity and movement, which is the basis for motion pictures.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn14\">[xiv]<\/a> See: U.S. Department of State, \u201cThe JUST Act Report: Germany,\u201d www.state.gov\/reports\/just-act-report-to-congress\/germany\/<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn15\">[xv]<\/a> Erika Solomon, \u201cGermany Offers One of the Largest Holocaust Reparations Packages, and a Special Fund for Ukrainians,\u201d <em>The New York <\/em><em>Times<\/em>, September 15, 2022, www.nytimes.com\/2022\/09\/15\/world\/europe\/germany-holocaust-reparations-ukraine.html?searchResultPosition=1<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn16\">[xvi]<\/a> Kirsten Grieshaber, \u201cGermany marks 70 years of compensating Holocaust survivors,\u201d Associated Press News, September 15, 2022, https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/holocaust-survivor-compensation-fund-germany-0d35aa1cba7756d1b9b6008e9d7841b7<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn17\">[xvii]<\/a> See: U.S. Department of State, \u201cThe JUST Act Report: Germany,\u201d www.state.gov\/reports\/just-act-report-to-congress\/germany\/<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn18\">[xviii]<\/a> The term, genocide, was coined by Raphael Lemkin in 1944. Genocide has been defined by Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), or the Genocide Convention as: \u201cany of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the groups conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.\u201d List of genocides: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_genocides<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn19\">[xix]<\/a> Rose-Helene (last name withheld to protect privacy). Holocaust survivor and a volunteer at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Email, April 16, 2023.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#top\">Return to top<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Image Captions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7444\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7444\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7444\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color-150x137.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"137\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color-150x137.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color-300x274.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.00_WWII_1945_timeline_color.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7444\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.00 World War II, 1945 Timeline<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.00 World War II, 1945 Timeline<\/p>\n<p><em>I found my friends full of life. Awaiting me were the warmth of a secure dining room, the reality of everyday routine, the intoxicating pleasure of writing. I found a spacious and clean bed. But it took me two months to abandon the habit of walking with my eyes fixed to the ground, as if seeking for something to eat or slip rapidly into my pocket to sell for bread. A terrifying dream still visits me from time to time: I am sitting at the table with my family or with friends, or at <\/em><em>work, or in a green field, in a calm and tranquil atmosphere, ostensibly free of tension and pain. Yet I feel a subtle and profound terror&#8230; everything falls and disintegrates around me&#8230;<\/em><a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Primo Levi\u2019s description of his return home in Italy after the Holocaust, written over 30 years after his liberation. Levi died from a fall down a flight of stairs. Shoah survivor Elie Wiesel said, \u201cPrimo Levi died at Auschwitz forty years later.\u201d<a href=\"#_edn2\" name=\"_ednref\">[ii]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn1\">[i]<\/a> Primo Levi in Jorge Semprun, \u201cRadical Evil and the Secrets of Fraternity,\u201d in Angel G. Loureiro, <em>The Ethics of Autobiography: Replacing the Subject in Modern Spain<\/em>, Vanderbilt University Press 2000. 153-54.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn2\">[ii]<\/a> Elie Wiesel, \u201cCon l\u2019incubo che tutto sia accaduto invano,\u201d <em>La Stampa,<\/em> Turin, 14 April 1987, 3.<\/p>\n<p>Henri Cartier-Bresson. <em>Gestapo Informer Recognized by a Woman She Had Denounced, Deportation Camp, Dessau, Germany<\/em>, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Magnum Photo.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7429\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7429\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7429\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo--150x99.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"99\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo--150x99.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo--300x199.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.01_BRESSON_Accused-Gestapo-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7429\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.01<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.01 Henri Cartier-Bresson. <em>Gestapo Informer Recognized by a Woman She Had Denounced, Deportation Camp, Dessau, Germany<\/em>, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Magnum Photo.<\/p>\n<p>This <em>decisive moment<\/em><a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">[<\/a><a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">i]<\/a>was made at the German Dessau deportation camp as a Belgian woman, who had been a Gestapo informer, was publicly identified by another angry and defiant woman as the one who denounced her. The camp commandant and interrogator sits coolly at a writing desk while the alleged informer hangs her head in disgrace.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn1\">[i]<\/a> The split second known, as the <em>decisive moment<\/em> is not the height of action, but rather that incident, when the formal spatial relationships of the subjects reveal their essential\u00a0 meaning. Cartier-Bresson saw that moment as \u201cthe simultaneous recognition, in a fraction of a second, of the significance of an event, as well as a precise organization of forms, which gave that event its proper expression.\u201d Henri Cartier-Bresson, <em>The Decisive Moment<\/em> (New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 1953), unp.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7430\" style=\"width: 118px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7430\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7430\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--108x150.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"108\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--108x150.jpg 108w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation--216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.02_Dachau-Liberation-.jpg 450w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 108px) 100vw, 108px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7430\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.02<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.02<\/p>\n<p>Unknown photographer. <em>Dachau Liberation<\/em>, Entomologisches Institut der Waffen SS Camp, Germany, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Yad Vashem Archives Jerusalem, Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Entomological Institute of the Waffen-SS was a research site made in 1942 to protect the SS from insect-borne diseases like typhus and to develop an offensive biological warfare program. Their horrific experiments involved using human prisoners without their consent nor caring if they died due to their breach of medical and moral ethics.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7431\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7431\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7431\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates--150x113.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"113\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates--150x113.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates--300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.03_Germans-burying-the-corpses-of-inmates-.jpg 576w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7431\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.03<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.03<\/p>\n<p>Unknown photographer. <em>Germans burying the corpses of inmates under the supervision of American soldiers<\/em>, Schwarzheide, Germany, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print.<\/p>\n<p>Official capitalized, typewritten text reads: Italy, 5\/12\/45- ANOTHER NAZI ATROCITY DISCOVERED\u2014WHEN U. S. THIRD ARMY TROOPS CAPTURED SCHWARZENFELD, GERMANY, ON APRIL 22 1945, ANOTHER <span style=\"text-decoration: line-through;\">SOTRY<\/span> STORY OF NAZI MURDER AND ATROCITY WAS REVEALED. THE AMERICANS FOUND THAT MANY HUNDREDS OF HELPLESS PERSONS, INCLUDING ALLIED PRISONERS OF WAR AND POLISH JEWISH SLAVE<span style=\"text-decoration: line-through;\">S<\/span> LABORERS, HAD BEEN SHOT IN COLD BLOOD BY NAZI SS TROOPS AND THEIR BODIES THROWN INTO A MASS GRAVE. THE EXECUTIONS TOOK PLACE ONE DAY BEFORE AMERICAN FORCES CAPTURED THE TOWN. AFTER MAKING OFFICIAL RECORD OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES, U. S. MILITARY GOVERNMENT OFFICERS ORDERED LOCAL GERMAN CIVILIANS TO EXHUME THE BODIES AND PROVIDE COFFINS AND A CIVILIZED BURIAL FOR THE VICTIMS. SCHWARZENFELD IS 47 MILES EAST OF NUREMBURG AND 28 MILES WEST OF THE CZ-CHOSLOV..KI..N [sic] BORDER.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7432\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7432\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7432\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison--150x117.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"117\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison--150x117.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison--300x235.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.04_Cell-block-Nuremberg-prison-.jpg 583w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7432\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.04<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.04<br \/>\nUnknown photographer. <em>The main cell block in the Nuremberg prison<\/em>, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany, November 24, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland.<\/p>\n<p>The main cell block in the Nuremberg prison, where defendants standing trial before the International Military Tribunal were incarcerated. One guard was posted at the entrance to each of the defendant\u2019s cells to prevent suicide attempts.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7433\" style=\"width: 118px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7433\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7433\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer--108x150.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"108\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer--108x150.jpg 108w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer--216x300.jpg 216w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.05_Irma-GreseJosef-Kramer-.jpg 449w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 108px) 100vw, 108px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7433\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.05<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.05<\/p>\n<p>Sergeant Silverside and Lieutenant A. Turner, No 5 Army Film &amp; Photographic Unit. <em>Irma Grese and former SS Hauptsturmf\u00fchrer Josef Kramer in prison, <\/em>in Celle Germany, August 8, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Imperial War Museums, UK.<\/p>\n<p>Irma Grese, who Auschwitz inmates nicknamed the \u201cHyena of Auschwitz,\u201d standing in the courtyard of the Prisoner of War cage with Josef Kramer. A note on the back of this photograph reads: \u201cOf the whole lot to be tried, these two will rank as the worst.\u201d Both were convicted of war crimes and sentenced to death.<a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn1\"><\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7434\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7434\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7434\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg--150x117.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"117\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg--150x117.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg--300x235.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.06_Defendants-Nuremberg-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7434\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.06<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.06<\/p>\n<p>Charles Alexander. <em>The defendants dock at the International Military Tribunal trial of war criminals<\/em>, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany., January 1 1946 &#8211; October 1 1946. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<p>Pictured in the front row from left to right are: Goering, Hess, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner , Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Funk and Schacht. In the second row are Doenitz, Raeder, Schirach, Saukel, Jodl, Papen, Seyss-Inquart, Speer, von Neurath and Fritsche. Sitting in front of them are their defense counsel. The naval officer sitting among the lawyers is Dr. Otto Kranzbuehler, the defense counsel for Karl Doenitz, who was temporarily released from the POW camp when Doenitz requested him to be his lawyer. At the bottom left corner is General R. A. Rudenko, the chief Soviet prosecutor.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7435\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7435\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7435\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide--150x122.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"122\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide--150x122.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide--300x244.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.07_Goering-suicide-.jpg 584w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7435\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.07<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.07<\/p>\n<p>Edward F. McLaughlin. <em>The body of Hermann Goering after he committed suicide in prison following the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg<\/em>, Nuremberg, [Bavaria] Germany, October 16, 1946. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<p>Hermann Goering was Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, President of the Reichstag, Reich Marshal, and initially Hitler&#8217;s chosen successor. He was found guilty of conspiracy to wage war, crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, for which he was sentenced to death. On October 15, 1946, just two hours before his execution, he committed suicide by swallowing a cyanide capsule that he had managed to smuggle into prison.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7436\" style=\"width: 98px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7436\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7436\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows--88x150.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"88\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows--88x150.jpg 88w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows--175x300.jpg 175w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.08-_Rudolf-Hoess-on-the-gallows-.jpg 365w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 88px) 100vw, 88px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7436\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.08<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.08<\/p>\n<p>Stanis\u0142aw D\u0105browiecki. <em>Rudolf Hoess on the gallows, immediately before his execution<\/em>, April 16, 1947. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Rudolf Hoess (aka Rudolf H\u00f6ss) was the architect and commandant of the largest killing center ever created, the death camp Auschwitz in western Poland. Hoess commanded the camp for three and a half years, during which he expanded the original facility into a sprawling complex known as Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp. Hoess increased the extermination methods at Treblinka by making the gas chambers ten times larger, so that they could kill 2,000 people at once instead of 200. He commented: \u201cIt took 3\u201315 minutes for the victims to die and &#8220;we knew when the people were dead because they stopped screaming.\u201d A million and a half people were murdered at Auschwitz.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7437\" style=\"width: 136px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7437\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7437\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments--126x150.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"126\" height=\"150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments--126x150.jpg 126w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments--253x300.jpg 253w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.09_Children-Pseudo-medical-experiments-.jpg 527w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 126px) 100vw, 126px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7437\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.09<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.09<\/p>\n<p>Unknown photographer. <em>Children at a German Nazi concentration camp subjected to pseudo-medical experiments<\/em>. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.<\/p>\n<p>Thousands of prisoners were victims of appalling pseudo-medical studies carried out against their will in Auschwitz-Birkenau by prominent doctors, such as Josef Mengele (<em>The Angel of Death<\/em>) who disregarded all moral standards, especially the non-maleficence (to do no harm), one of the pillars of medical ethics.<a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528#_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528#_ednref\">[i]<\/a> See: Andrzej Jakubik and Zdzis\u0142aw Jan Ryn, \u201cPseudo-medical experiments in Hitler\u2019s concentration camps,\u201d <em>Medical Review Auschwitz project<\/em>, n\/d, www.mp.pl\/auschwitz\/journal\/english\/170062,pseudo-medical-experimens-in-hitlers-concentration-camps<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7439\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7439\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7439\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards--150x148.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"148\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards--150x148.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards--300x297.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.11_SS-women-camp-guards-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7439\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.11<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.11<\/p>\n<p>Sergeant H. Oakes, No 5 Army Film &amp; Photographic Unit. April 4, 1945. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. Imperial War Museums, UK. The original caption sheet read: \u201cS.S. women are also made to work. These women are the equivalent of the men for brutality.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>S.S. (Schutzstaffel) women camp guards are paraded for work in clearing the dead. The women include Hildegard Kanbach (first from left) , Irene Haschke (center, third from right), the Head Wardress, Elisabeth Volkenrath (second from right, partially hidden) and Herta Bothe (first from right). <a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528#_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>[i] For details about the active role German women played in the Nazi movement see: Wendy Lower, <em>Hitler\u2019s Furies: German Women in the Nazi Killing Fields (<\/em>Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013<em>). <\/em>A third of the German female population, thirteen million women, were actively engaged in a Nazi party organization, and female membership in the Nazi Party increased steadily until the end of the war. (p. 11).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7442\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7442\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7442\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--150x107.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"107\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--150x107.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till--300x213.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.14-Jackson_Emmett-Till-.jpeg 766w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7442\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.14<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.14<\/p>\n<p>David Jackson. <em>The mutilated body of Emmett Till and his distraught mother<\/em>, 1955. Dimensions variable. Gelatin silver print. <em>Jet<\/em> magazine.<\/p>\n<p>Mrs. Till decided to have an open-casket funeral to show the world how her son was brutally murdered at the hands of racists. \u201cI think everybody needed to know what happened to Emmett Till,\u201d she remarked. His mutilated body was on display for over 50,000 people to see. <em>Jet<\/em>, an important African American weekly print magazine (now digital) that called itself: \u201cThe Weekly Negro News Magazine,\u201d published a photograph of Emmett\u2019s corpse which was quickly picked up by mainstream media, enraging Black Americans across the US.<a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#_ednref\" name=\"_edn1\">[i]<\/a> See: Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, \u201cRemembering Emmett Till \u2013 His Story and Legacy,\u201d August 20, 2020, https:\/\/unitedinsolidarity.mountsinai.org\/remembering-emmett-till\/<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_7443\" style=\"width: 160px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-7443\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-7443\" src=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--150x133.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"133\" srcset=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--150x133.jpg 150w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor--300x266.jpg 300w, https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/8.15_Ferencz-Benjamin-RIP-Nuremberg-prosecutor-.jpg 625w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-7443\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">8.15<\/p><\/div>\n<p>8.15<\/p>\n<p>Robin Utrecht. <em>Benjamin B. Ferencz: Last Surviving Nuremberg Prosecutor<\/em>, <em>Dies at 103<\/em>, 2023. Vertical Entertainment, Mr. Ferencz in <em>Prosecuting Evil: The Extraordinary World of Ben Ferencz<\/em>, 2019. Dimensions variable. Digital file.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to convicting prominent Nazi war criminals, he campaigned for an international criminal court and for laws to end wars of aggression.<a href=\"#_edn1\" name=\"_ednref\">[i]<\/a><\/p>\n<p>[1] More at: Robert D. McFadden, \u201cLast Surviving Nuremberg Prosecutor, Dies at 103.\u201d www.nytimes.com\/2023\/04\/08\/world\/europe\/benjamin-b-ferencz-dead.html<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"#top\">Return to top<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>&nbsp; Theme Table of Contents VJIC Table of Contents Photography and the Holocaust: Then &amp; Now Essay # 8 \u00a0AFTERMATH: The Nuremberg Trials \u00a0 \u00a9 Robert Hirsch 2023 www.lightresearch.net VASA Journal on Images and Culture (VJIC), Theme Editor and Writer &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/?page_id=7528\">Continue reading <span class=\"meta-nav\">&rarr;<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":88910,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-7528","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/P2KsSU-1Xq","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7528","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/88910"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=7528"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7528\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7616,"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7528\/revisions\/7616"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vjic.org\/vjic2\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=7528"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}